University of Botswana
Department of Media Studies
BMS 226 ETHICS FOR MEDIA PROFESSIONALS
HANDOUT 2: INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS
Definitions
Ethics is about the grey areas in our lives. When moral decisions are black-and-white, knowing what we should do is easy. We may not do the right thing, but there is no question about what we ought to do.
For example abortion may be ‘moral’ or ‘immoral’ according to the right or wrong code we employ but ‘ethics’ tells us why we call it immoral or moral and how we make up our minds.
Ethics is sometimes called moral philosophy; we use it to criticise, defend, promote, justify and to answer questions of morality, such as:
- How should we treat one another?
- What are right and wrong?
- How can we know or decide?
- Where do our ethical ideas come from?
- What are rights? Who or what has them?
- Should we coerce one another?
- Can we find an ethical system that applies to everyone?
Why study ethics?
Of all the areas of philosophy, ethics is the one that seems most relevant to us because everyone is making ethical decisions all the time whether they know it or not.
Making the right ethical decision is not a job for a philosopher. We all have to make ethical decisions all the time.
Ethical theory can help us to make decisions. We can use theory to help us to decide if the standards of behaviour we currently use are the right ones. Are they based on sound assumptions, or could we think otherwise? Are we applying them correctly, or as best we could? Perhaps most importantly, are there alternatives we have not yet considered?
There are many such issues that are typically studied according to the separation of ethics into three sub-branches:
Metaethics: the study of where ethical ideas came from and what they mean. In particular, is there an ethical system that isn’t based on our own opinions that we can use in any situation at any time or place?
Normative ethics: the search for a principle (or principles) that guide or regulate how we behave - that tell us what is right or wrong. A norm is just another way of saying ‘standard’, so normative ethics is the attempt to find a single test for what is moral behaviour - and what does not.
Applied ethics: the study of specific problems or issues by using moral ideas from normative ethics and based on the lessons of metaethics.
Ethical theories
Here are some of the main ethical theories.
Ethical egoism – (from Epicurus, a Greek philosopher)
People only care about themselves and everyone is looking out for themselves.
Ethical egoists say that’s the way it ought to be.
The wise person is prepared to lie if there is no risk of being found out, but we can’t be sure our lies won’t be found out.
Following Epicurus, Thomas Hobbes described life as ‘nasty, brutish and short’ Adam Smith – the father of capitalism – advised every person to seek his or her own profit.
Even though egoism is everywhere, most ethical thinkers say the selfishness of the principle is morally repugnant. It means anyone can do what they want to without worrying about anyone else.
Utilitarianism – (from John Stuart Mill, an Englishman
An act is good or bad depending on its consequences.
Mill supported Epicurus in that pleasure in life is the only consequence that matters. But the pleasure should not be personal.
Utilitarianism seeks the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people (you care about what happens to all people). But with Utilitarianism it is possible for one person to be sacrificed for the greater good of the group, even if that person doesn’t deserve it.
The principle of utility is difficult to apply in specific cases.
The Categorical Imperative (from Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher)
Utilitarians cared about consequences – an act is good or bad depending on how things turn out. But according to Kant an act is either ‘right or wrong’ and there is no in between.
Kant said it was the duty of everyone to tell the truth, even if it meant they got into trouble for doing so
Kant introduced the idea of the ‘Categorical imperative’ which means people had a duty to be ethical without exception.
Self Evident Duties (from W D Ross, a British man)
Ethics is a matter of doing our duty. (1930). Ross listed six basic duties ranked in order of importance:
1. Fidelity - Do no harm to others
2. Reparation – Make amends to those we have hurt
3. Gratitude – Repay those who have helped us
4. Justice – Treat people as well as they deserve
5. Beneficence – Help others when we can
6. Self-improvement – Better oneself.
Ross believed right actions are obvious to anyone who wants to be good.
Justice as Fairness (from John Rawls, an American)
This assumes that given a fair way for reaching a decision, people would agree to give each other as much freedom as possible. This is hard to achieve because differences in status, power, wealth, and intelligence of people give some people in society unequal opportunity when the moral ground rules of society are decided.
Divine Will (from Augustine, a Catholic bishop)
Love (the Christian) God and do what he tells you to do.
Ethics is a part of theology. For example the Ninth Commandment ‘You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour’. Tells to tell the truth no matter how painful the consequences.
FURTHER READING:
For more details on ethical theory see:
A Practical and Cooperative Introduction to Ethical Theory by Nicholas Jones. Chapter 3. The whole book is on the Internet at:
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